RESEARCH METHOD IN TEACHING FOR BS EDUCATION

 RESEARCH METHOD IN TEACHING 

Research Method in Teaching

BS EDUCATION 5TH SEMESTER

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

by ,Habib Hussain ghoury

     M.phil education,MA (TEFL)

 

03003502244

habibhussainghoury@gmail,com

habibhussainghoury.blogspot.com

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                  

 

Unit 1

Nature of educational research

What is educational research?

Education research is the scientific field of study that examines education and learning processes and the human attributes, interactions, organizations, and institutions that shape educational outcomes. Scholarship in the field seeks to describe, understand, and explain how learning takes place throughout a person’s life and how formal and informal contexts of education affect all forms of learning. Education research embraces the full spectrum of rigorous methods appropriate to the questions being asked and also drives the development of new tools and methods.

Introduction to Educational Research

As a student, teacher, or administrator, consider how many times you have heard, “evidence-based practice” or “according to the research.” It seems that every new idea in education is research-based, but what does that really mean? This overview is a summary of important concepts and considerations related to research in education.

What is Educational Research?

A cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying a research problem or issue of study. It then involves reviewing the literature, specifying a purpose for the study, collecting and analyzing data, and forming an interpretation of information. This process culminates in a report, disseminated to audiences, that is evaluated and used in the educational community. (Creswell, 2002)

In less comprehensive terms, educational research is an organized approach to asking, answering, and effectively reporting a question.

Why Educational Research?

 

by ,Habib Hussain ghoury

     M.phil education,MA (TEFL)

 

03003502244

habibhussainghoury@gmail,com

habibhussainghoury.blogspot.com

Educators need to be consumers (and producers) of research. Creswell (2002) notes the following reasons, describing the various purposes of educational research:

1.    Improve Practice

Research can suggest ways of improving practice that have been verified with many applications and by many different types of people, which is difficult for practitioners.

2.    Add to Knowledge

Research can add to what we know about how people learn and what we can do help facilitate the learning process.

3.    Address Gaps in Knowledge

Research can address areas in which little is know, like perhaps the effects of online versus traditional classroom learning.

4.    Expand Knowledge

Research can allow us to extend what we know in ways we never conceived.

5.    Replicate Knowledge

Research can act as a test to verify previous findings.

6.    Add Voices of Individuals to Knowledge

Research can add an important perspective for different learning types. Much of the educational research prior to the Eighties is based on able, white, middle-to- upper class males. This is certainly not reflective of our increasingly heterogeneous students, and research helps revise theory and practice to reflect different student needs.

These are only a few of the many reasons research is important, particularly to educators. In an increasingly data-driven society, it is vital that educators know how to locate, find, and interpret research on their own. Further, educators need to be able to conduct quality research to examine issues within their own contexts.

Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods. Research may involve various aspects of education including student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.

Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic. However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines. These disciplines include psychology, sociology, anthropology,

and philosophy. Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines. Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted.

 

 

Characteristics of educational research:

Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:

1.      Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

2.      Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.

3.      Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

4.      Research demands accurate observation and description.

5.      Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

6.      Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.

7.      Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

8.      Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.

9.      Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.

10. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

 

 

 

 

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under two heads:

1.                                                                                   The branches, topics and the subject matter it deals with

2.                                                                                   The limits of it’s operations and applications

The fields of educational research can be classified in terms of following content areas.

1.                                         Educational Psychology

2.                                         Philosophy of Education

3.                                         Sociology of Education

4.                                         Economics of Education

5.                                         Educational Administration

6.                                         Comparative Education

7.                                         Curriculum construction and Textbooks

8.                                         Educational Measurement and Test development

9.                                         Teacher education and teaching behavior

10.                             Guidance and counselling

11.                             Educational Technology

1.                                         Educational Psychology

Research in Educational Psychology has great significance for a teacher. The usefulness of various theories of learning for designing conditions that produce effective learning in school has been the central theme of researches in the recent years. Conditions conductive to effective learning, factors helpful in promoting memory and concept formation need attention by the researchers. Promising fields

of research in Educational Psychology include. Cognitive, non-cognitive factors such as intelligence, aptitudes, creativity, attitudes, interest, motivation, personality traits, needs and adjustment of pupils various influences of home, neighbourhood, peer relationships and other social relationships that affect child development, growth and learning are worth investigating. The fundamental process of perception, learning and motivation and their applications, the exceptional children, the adolescent problems, achievement etc. should be studied.

2.                                         Philosophy of Education

Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. Unless based on the sound footing of a systematic philosophy, it’s theory and practice can never attain perfection.

Promising field of research in philosophy of education include the following areas.

The aims of education, the motivation of learning the measurements it’s reslts, the construction of curriculum. A study of the utterances of Vyasa and Valmiki, Budha Sankaracharya, Swami Vivekananda, Sri. Aurobindo, Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi, a

philosophical analysis of the problems of idiscipline, unrest, strikes, disobedience of authority etc.

P.S. Naidu to has listed following area of philosophy of education in which research may be undertaken.

1.                    Need for philosophy of Education

2.                    Special features of Indian Philosophy

3.                    Indian Philosophy and Indian Education

4.                    Indian Philosophical thoughts

5.                    The teacher, the learner, Teacher – learner inter relation and interaction

6.                    Some Ancient Educational institutions

7.                    The abiding elements in Indian philosophy of education

8.                    Re-organization of Education to make it Indian on the basis of the exposition attempted so far.

3.                                         Sociology of Education

With the increasing emphasis on sociological foundations of education, the interaction of the two disciplines of education and sociology is getting attention of Indian researchers more and more.

The important problems of research related to sociology of education include the study of population explosion and changes, demographic trends, the impact of political and social pressures on an educational system, educational aims, curriculum contents, methods and techniques in teaching-learning process, conductive to socio economic and politico cultural situations prevailing in the country from time to time.

The role and function of the school may be determined in the light of the needs of the specific community background. In the problem of delinquency, the study of social factors and cultural background of the community important. Problems relating to tribal cultures, rural community, community development, industrialization, urbanization crime and family should be investigated.

The problems like the teacher’s role as an agent of social change and modernization, teacher’s admissions and accademic achievement in schools need to be investigated on the priority basis.

4.                                         Economic and Education

Studies in Economics and Education include attitude studies and achievement test. Very few studies have been made in educational finance. Some researchers have recently studied the five – year plan allocations and their utilization. A recent study relates to unit institutional costs in Higher Education.

5.                                         Educational Administration

Much of the work in this area is more or less of survey type. It would be worthwhile to undertake research in the areas of Staff personnel administration, educational legislation, educational planning, school plant planning, school organization, business administration, evaluation of institutions, administrative theory and supervision. Researches may study the place and scope of collective bargaining in education, the impact of compulsory education laws, legal status of voluntary organizations in the administration and control of education.

6.      Comparative Education

This includes analyzing the educational organization and administrative machinery of two or more countries. Problems like education and national development in terms of economic growth, educational control and reorganization of curriculum, the role of universities, social education, and so on may be subjects of purposeful research. The innovative ideas of work experiences in the country and granting autonomous status to some colleges etc need a comparative probe in to them. Odd has suggested that interstate study in grant in aid system and administrative patterns would be fruitful. It will be worthwhile to make a comparative study of the procedures, problems of textbook production, the quality of textbooks production and teacher’s reaction to them.

7.      Curriculum construction and textbooks

A school curriculum will be effective in so far as it is based on adequate knowledge of how children grow and learn and of the needs of the modern society. The latter is a matter of public relations and the former of research. The research in curriculum needs to be focused on the following issues.

1.                                             Testing experimentally all principles of curriculum construction

2.                                             Curriculum in education that will produce better results in morals

3.                                             To investigate into the sources of curriculum content

4.                                             What is the bearing of psychology on the curriculum

5.                                             What are the future needs of pupils as far as curriculum is concerned?

6.                                             What should be the methods in curriculum making etc.

8. Educational measurement and test development

This includes the following areas like construction and standardization of achievement tests. Problems relating to pupil

placement, diagnosis, remedial programmes, norms,

psychological tests, observational techniques, rating scales, groups tests of intelligence and aptitude, personality tests etc. 9. Teacher education and teaching behavior.

Teacher education has received notable attention of educational researchers. These studies relate the areas historical development of teacher

– education, curriculum and training programmes co-curriculum and practical work, assessment, evaluation, and prediction of teaching. Some studies have been concerned with attitudes of teachers and student teachers towards various parts of the pre-service and in service programmes. Personal, economic and socio economic conditions of teachers have also been studied.

10.                              Guidance and counselling

The areas are,

Vocational adjustment of Indian youth, vocational choice and Adjustment, long term manpower needs, future needs, the study of aptitudes, socio-economic status, interest patterns and other personality dimension, tests of intelligence, special aptitudes like art, science and music, special skills and scholastic aptitudes etc.

11.                              Educational Technology

The software approach, hardware approach and systems approached and their impact on the learning of students, programmed instruction, use of science and technology to improve the teaching learning process, communication and media, audio visual aids, teaching machines, projectors and computers are some areas which can be included in research studies. The relative benefits of face to face instruction and televised instruction in teaching of different subjects may be included in the field of research studies.

 

 

Scientific method:

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES TO EDUCATION

While all sciences share common principles, every field of study develops a specialization as the principles are applied. Education has its own set of features—

not individually unique from other professional and disciplinary fields of study, but singular in their combination—that gives rise to the specialization of education research.

Education is multilayered, constantly shifting, and occurs within an interaction among institutions (e.g., schools and universities), communities, and families. It is highly value laden and involves a diverse array of people and political forces that significantly shapes its character. These features require attention to the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical environment in the research process because these contextual factors often influence results in significant ways.

Because the U.S. education system is so heterogeneous and the nature of teaching and learning so complex, attention to context is especially critical for understanding the extent to which theories and findings may generalize to other times, places, and populations.

Education research as a profession has defining features as well. For example, multiple disciplinary perspectives bear on the study of education. Furthermore, conducting education research that involves studying humans (e.g., students, teachers) is governed by the need to ensure ethical treatment of these participants. Finally, education research depends on its relationships with practice.

These links exist along a spectrum:

sometypes of research require only a weak connection; others require full partnerships with schools or other entities.

In order to analyze state assessment data, parents and schools have to agree to a test administration. To study mechanisms by which interventions increase student achievement would require long-term partnerships between research and practice.

The features of education, in combination with the guiding principles of science, set the boundaries for the design of scientific education research. The design of a study does not make the study scientific. A wide variety of legitimate scientific designs are available for education research. They range from randomized experiments of voucher programs to in-depth ethnographic case studies of teachers to neurocognitive investigations of number learning using positive emission tomography brain imaging. To be scientific, the design must allow direct,

empirical investigation of an important question, account for the context in which the study is carried out, align with a conceptual framework, reflect careful and thorough reasoning, and disclose results to encourage debate in the scientific community.

 

 

Steps in scientific process:

The scientific method is a five-step process used in scientific investigation. Sometimes the steps are combined or added to, but the five are the basic structure for any endeavor to answer a question objectively.

 

 

 

 

Characteristics of research problem:

 

 

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

·         the variables in the problem must be clear

·       it should be limited in scope and should be specific,

 

·       It must have a goal

·       it should be free from ethical constraints

·       Good research problem must be researchable.

 

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

·         Social problems like unemployment, crimes, female genital mutilation , etc   ·         theory deduction   ·         funding agencies   ·         past researches and literature review ·         casual observation ·         related literature ·         current social and economic issues ·         personal interest and experience ·         replication of previous studies ·         clarification of contradictory research results

 

 

 

Unit 2

The Researching Professional

Qualities of a Good Researcher   ·        Friendly with Respondents. A good researcher must have the quality to become friendly with respondents. It should have to talk to them in the same language in which the responding are answering and make happy made.

 

·     Least Discouragement. If the people are not co-operate to give correct data, the researcher should not be discouraged and face the difficulties, it would be called a good researcher.

 

·        Free From Prejudice. A researcher would be good if he has no prejudice or bias study about a problematic situation but he is capable of providing clear information’s.

 

·     Capacity of Depth Information. A researcher should have the capacity to collect more and more information in little time.

 

·     Accuracy. A researcher would be said to be good, if he is accurate in his views. His ideas must be accurate one.

 

·     Truthful. A researcher must have to be truthful. Its idea would be free from false reports and saying information.

 

·     Keen Observer. It is the quality of a good researcher that he may have the ideas of keen and deep observation.

 

·        Careful in Listening. A researcher would be more careful in listening. He would have the quality of listening very low information’s even whispering.

 

·     Low Dependency on Common Sense. A researcher should be called good if he has low dependency on common sense but keep in observation all the events and happenings.

 

·     Least time Consumer. Good researcher must have the capacity of least time consuming. It will have to do more work in a little time because of the shortage of time.

 

·     Economical. Good researcher must have control over his economic resources. He has to keep his finances within limits and spend carefully.

 

·     Low Care of Disapprovals of Society. A good researcher have no care of the approvals or disapprovals but doing his work with zeal and patience to it.

 

·     Expert in Subject. A researcher would be a good one if he has full command over his subject. He makes the use of his theoretical study in field work easily.

·     Free From Hasty Statements. It is not expected from a good researcher to make his study hasty and invalid with wrong statements. Its study must be based on reality & validity.

 

·     Good in Conversation. The conversation of a good researcher should be sympathetic and not boring. He must have the skill and art to be liked by the people.

 

·        Having Clear Terminology. A good researcher’s terminology would be clear. It would be free from out wards to become difficult for the respondents to answer.

·     Trained in Research Tools. Research is impossible without its techniques and tools. So, it should be better for a researcher to know about the use of these tools.

 

·     Dress and Behavior same to the area. The dress and the behavior of the researcher should be same as to the study area. it is must for him to convince the people easily and adopt their dress.

 

·     More Analytical. A researcher would be different from other people of the society. On the basis of this quality he may observe the situation very well. Then he should be able to solve the problems easily.

 

·        Equality and Justice. A good researcher should believe on equality and justice. As equal to all type of people he may collect better information’s from the respondents.

 

 

 

Teacher as researcher:

Teachers are subjective insiders involved in classroom instruction as they go about their daily routines of instructing students, grading papers, taking attendance, evaluating their performance as well as looking at the curriculum. Traditional educational researchers who develop questions and design studies around those questions and conduct research within the schools are considered objective outside

observers of classroom interaction. But when teachers become teacher-researchers, the "traditional descriptions of both teachers and researchers change. Teacher- researchers raise questions about what they think and observe about their teaching and their students' learning. They collect student work in order to evaluate performance, but they also see student work as data to analyze in order to examine the teaching and learning that produced it".

 

 

The prevailing focus of teacher research is to expand the teacher's role as inquirer about teaching and learning through systematic classroom research (Copper, 1990). The approach is naturalistic, using participant-observation techniques of ethnographic research, is generally collaborative, and includes characteristics of case study methodology (Belanger, 1992).

 

The research study team provides support and a forum for sharing questions, concerns, and results. Teachers advise each other and comment on the progress of individual efforts. Engaging in collaborative action research helps eliminate the isolation that has long characterized teaching, as it promotes professional dialogue and thus, creates a more professional culture in schools.

 

 

 

 

What Do Teacher Researchers Do?

·         Develop questions based on their own curiosity about their students' learning and their teaching

·         Investigate their questions with their students systematically documenting what happens

·         Collect and analyze data from their classes including their own observations and reflections

·         Examine their assumptions and beliefs

·         Articulate their theories

·         Discuss their research with their colleagues for support as "critical friends" to validate their findings and interpretations of their data

·         Present findings to others

·         Talk to their students

·         Give presentations (talk to teacher in room next door, go to conferences)

·         Write about their research (school-wide publication, national) á participate in teacher research web sites, online forums, and e-mail communications.

 

WHY IS TEACHER RESEARCH IMPORTANT?

 

The current school restructuring movement has site-based, shared decision-making at its core. With the newly acquired autonomy, comes new responsibilities.

Teachers, local schools, and school districts are accountable to all stakeholders for the policies, programs, and practices they implement. It is not enough for teachers merely to make decisions; they will be called upon to make informed decisions, decisions which are data driven. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to be much more deliberate in documenting and evaluating their efforts.

Action research is one means to that end. It is very likely the emergence of site- based decisionmaking has precipitated the resurgence of action research; the two seem to be complementary. Action research assists practitioners and other stakeholders in identifying the needs, assessing the development processes, and evaluating the outcomes of the changes they define, design, and implement. The self-evaluation aspect of action research (by educators and/or students) is congruent with the philosophies contained in the Total Quality Education and Outcomes Based Education movements currently being advanced by numerous states and districts throughout the nation.

Research ethics:

 

Research that involves human subjects or participants raises unique and complex ethical, legal, social and political issues. Research ethics is specifically interested in the analysis of ethical issues that are raised when people are involved as participants in research. There are three objectives in research ethics. Thefirst and broadest objective is to protect human participants. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of individuals, groups and/or society as a whole. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of confidentiality and the process of informed consent.

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:

·        Honesty:

Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.

·        Objectivity:

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.

·        Integrity:

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

·        Carefulness:

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.

·        Openness:

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

·        Respect for Intellectual Property:

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

·        Confidentiality:

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

·        Responsible Publication:

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

·        Responsible Mentoring:

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

·        Respect for Colleagues:

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

·        Social Responsibility:

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

·        Non-Discrimination:

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

·        Competence:

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

·        Legality:

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

·        Animal Care:

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

·        Human Subjects Protection:

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

 

Unit 3

Types of educational research Descriptive research:

Learning Objectives:

 

·         Define and describe descriptive research.

·         List and explain the three main types of descriptive methods.

·         Discuss the uses and applications of descriptive methodology.

·         Provide examples of research questions that could be answered using descriptive methods.

 

Descriptive research is research used to “describe” a situation, subject, behavior, or phenomenon. It is used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research question or problem. Descriptive studies are often described as studies that are concerned with finding out “what is”.       It attempts to gather quantifiable information that can be used to statistically analyze a target audience or a particular subject. Description research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem without influencing or manipulating the variables in any way. Hence, these studies are really correlational or observational, and not truly experimental. This type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than exploratory. Therefore, descriptive research does not attempt to answer “why” and is not used to discover inferences, make predictions or establish causal relationships.

 

Descriptive research is used extensively in social science, psychology and educational research. It can provide a rich data set that often brings to light new knowledge or awareness that may have otherwise gone unnoticed or encountered. It is particularly useful when it is important to gather information with disruption of the subjects or when it is not possible to test and measure large numbers of samples. It allows researchers to observe natural behaviors without affecting them in any way. Following is a list of research questions or problems that may lend themselves to descriptive research:

 

·         Market researchers may want to observe the habits of consumers.

·         A company may be wanting to evaluate the morale of the staff.

·         A school district may research whether or not students are more likely to access online textbooks than to use printed copies.

·         A school district may wish to assess teachers’ attitudes about using

technology in the classroom. ·         An educational software company may want to know what aspects of the software make it more likely to be used by students. ·         A researcher may wish to study the impact of hands-on activities and laboratory experiments on students’ perceptions of science. ·         A researcher could be studying whether or not the availability of hiking/biking trails increases the physical activity levels in a neighborhood.

 

The Nature of Descriptive Research

 

·         The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation (Borg & Gall, 1989). Researchers may work for many years to perfect such instrumentation so that the resulting measurement will be accurate, reliable, and generalizable. Instruments such as the electron microscope, standardized tests for various purposes, the United States census, Michael Simonson's questionnaires about computer usage, and scores of thoroughly validated questionnaires are examples of some instruments that yield valuable descriptive data. Once the instruments are developed, they can be used to describe phenomena of interest to the researchers.

·         The intent of some descriptive research is to produce statistical information about aspects of education that interests policy makers and educators. The National Center for Education Statistics specializes in this kind of research. Many of its findings are published in an annual volume

·         called Digest of Educational Statistics. The center also administers the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which collects descriptive information about how well the nation's youth are doing in various subject areas. A typical NAEP publication is The Reading Report Card, which provides descriptive information about the reading achievement of junior high and high school students during the past 2 decades.

 

Types of descriptive research:

In some types of descriptive research, the researcher does not interact with the subjects. In other types, the researcher does interact with the subjects and collects information directly from them. Some descriptive studies may be cross-sectional, whereby the researcher has a one-time interaction with the test subjects. Other studies may be longitudinal, where the same test subjects are followed over time. There are three main methods that may be used in descriptive research:

 

·         Observational Method – Used to review and record the actions and behaviors of a group of test subjects in their natural environment. The research typically does not have interaction with the test subject.

·         Case Study Method – This is a much more in-depth student of an individual or small group of individuals. It may or may not involve interaction with the test subjects.

·         Survey Method – Researchers interact with individual test subjects by collecting information through the use of surveys or interviews.

·

The data collected from descriptive research may be quantitative, qualitative or both. The quantitative data is typically presented in the form of descriptive statistics that provide basic information such as the mean, median, and mode of a data set. Quantitative date may also be tabulated along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test. It can also be used to describe categories of information or patterns of interactions. Such quantitative data is typically represented in tables, graphs, and charts which makes it user-friendly and easy to interpret. Qualitative data, such as the type of narrative data collected in a case study, may be organized into patterns that emerge or it may be classified in some way, but requires more detailed analysis.

 

 

 

Experimental Research in Education

 

Experimental research is a method used by researchers through manipulating one variable and control the rest of the variables. The process, treatment and program in this type of research are also introduced and the conclusion is observed.

Commonly used in sciences such as sociology, psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine, experimental research is a collection of research designs which make use of manipulation and controlled testing in order to understand casual processes. To determine the effect on a dependent variable, one or more variables need to be manipulated.

 

The experimental Research is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables

The aim of experimental research is to predict phenomenons. In most cases, an experiment is constructed so that some kinds of causation can be explained.

Experimental research is helpful for society as it helps improve everyday life.

 

Experimental research is used where:

§  time priority in a causal relationship.

§  consistency in a causal relationship.

§  magnitude of the correlation is great.

 

Key Characteristics of Experimental Research

Today, several key characteristics help us understand and read experimental research.

 

§  Experimental researchers randomly assign participants to groups or other units.

§  They provide control over extraneous variables to isolate the effects of the independent variable on the outcomes.

§  They physically manipulate the treatment conditions for one or more groups.

§  They then measure the outcomes for the groups to determine if the experimental treatment had a different effect than the non-experimental treatment.

§  This is accomplished by statistically comparing the groups.

§  Overall, they design an experiment to reduce the threats to internal validity and external validity.

 

Unique Features of Experimental Method

“The best method — indeed the only fully compelling method — of establishing causation is to conduct a carefully designed experiment in which the effects of possible lurking variables are controlled. To experiment means to actively change x and to observe the response in y” .

“The experimental method is the only method of research that can truly test hypotheses concerning cause-and-effect relationships. It represents the most valid approach to the solution of educational problems, both practical and theoretical, and to the advancement of education as a science .

 

§  After treatment, performance of subjects (dependent variable) in both groups is compared.Bottom of Form

§  Empirical observations based on experiments provide the strongest argument

for cause-effect relationships.

§ 

⇒

Problem statement ⇒          ⇒ constructs ⇒ operational definitions ⇒

variables

§  Extraneous variables are controlled by 3 & 4 and other procedures if needed.

variables

theory hypotheses.

§  Random assignment of subjects to treatment and control (comparison) groups (insures equivalency of groups; ie., unknown variables that may influence outcome are equally distributed across groups.

§  Random sampling of subjects from population (insures sample is representative of population).

§  The investigator manipulates a variable directly (the independent variable).

§  The research question (hypothesis) is often stated as the alternative hypothesis to the null hypothesis, that is used to interpret differences in the empirical data.

 

Key Components of Experimental Research Design

 

 

The Manipulation of Predictor Variables

In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the factor that is hypothesized to affect the outcome of interest. The factor that is being manipulated is typically referred to as the treatment or intervention. The researcher may manipulate whether research subjects receive a treatment

 

Random Assignment

§  Study participants are randomly assigned to different treatment groups

§  All participants have the same chance of being in a given condition

Random assignment neutralizes factors other than the independent and dependent variables, making it possible to directly infer cause and effect

Random Sampling

Traditionally, experimental researchers have used convenience sampling to select study participants. However, as research methods have become more rigorous, and the problems with generalizing from a convenience sample to the larger population have become more apparent, experimental researchers are increasingly turning to random sampling. In experimental policy research studies, participants are often randomly selected from program administrative databases and randomly assigned to the control or treatment groups.

 

Validity of Results

The two types of validity of experiments are internal and external. It is often difficult to achieve both in social science research experiments.

 

Internal Validity

§  When an experiment is internally valid, we are certain that the independent variable (e.g., child care subsidies) caused the outcome of the study (e.g., maternal employment)

§  When subjects are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups, we can assume that the independent variable caused the observed outcomes because the two groups should not have differed from one another at the start of the experiment

§  Since research subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups, the two groups should not have differed at the outset of the study.

One potential threat to internal validity in experiments occurs when participants either drop out of the study or refuse to participate in the study. If particular types of individuals drop out or refuse to participate more often than individuals with other characteristics, this is called differential attrition.

 

External Validity

§  External validity is also of particular concern in social science experiments

§  It can be very difficult to generalize experimental results to groups that were not included in the study

§  Studies that randomly select participants from the most diverse and representative populations are more likely to have external validity

§  The use of random sampling techniques makes it easier to generalize the results of studies to other groups

Ethical Issues in Experimental Research

Ethical issues in conducting experiments relate to withholding the experimental treatment from some individuals who might benefit from receiving it, the disadvantages that might accrue from randomly assigning individuals to groups. This assignment overlooks the potential need of some individuals for beneficial treatment. Ethical issues also arise as to when to conclude an experiment, whether the experiment will provide the best answers to a problem, and considerations about the stakes involved in conducting the experiment.

 

It is particularly important in experimental research to follow ethical guidelines

 

Types of experimental research designs:

 

There are three basically designs:

 

1)               True experimental designs

 

2)               Pre-experimental designs,

 

3)               Quasi-experimental designs.

 

The degree to which the researcher assigns subjects to conditions and groups distinguishes the type of experimental design.

 

True Experimental Designs

True experimental designs are characterized by the random selection of participants and the random assignment of the participants to groups in the study. The researcher also has complete control over the extraneous variables. Therefore, it can be confidently determined that that effect on the dependent variable is directly due to the manipulation of the independent variable. For these reasons, true experimental designs are often considered the best type of research design.

 

A true experiment is thought to be the most accurate experimental research design. A true experiment is a type of experimental design and is thought to be the most accurate type of experimental research. This is because a true experiment supports

or refutes a hypothesis using statistical analysis. A true experiment is also thought to be the only experimental design that can establish cause and effect relationships.

 

Pre-experimental Design

Pre-experimental design is a research format in which some basic experimental attributes are used while some are not. This factor causes an experiment to not qualify as truly experimental. This type of design is commonly used as a cost effective way to conduct exploratory research.

 

Pre-experimental designs are so named because they follow basic experimental steps but fail to include a control group. In other words, a single group is often studied but no comparison between an equivalent non-treatment group is made

 

Pre-experiments are the simplest form of research design. In a pre-experiment either a single group or multiple groups are observed subsequent to some agent or treatment presumed to cause change.

 

Quasi-experimental designs

Quasi-experimental designs help researchers test for causal relationships in a variety of situations where the classical design is difficult or inappropriate. They are called quasi because they are variations of the classical experimental design. In general, the researcher has less control over the independent variable than in the classical design.

 

Main points of Quasi-experimental research designs

Quasi-experimental research designs, like experimental designs, test causal hypotheses.

 

§  A quasi-experimental design by definition lacks random assignment.

§  Quasi-experimental designs identify a comparison group that is as similar as possible to the

§  treatment group in terms of baseline (pre-intervention) characteristics.

§  There are different techniques for creating a valid comparison group such as regression

§  discontinuity design (RDD) and propensity score matching (PSM).

Experimental Research in Educational Technology:

 

Here is a sequence of logical steps for planning and conducting research

 

Step 1. Select a Topic. This step is self-explanatory and usually not a problem, except for those who are “required” to do research as opposed to initiating it on their own. The step simply involves identifying a general area that is of personal interest and then narrowing the focus to a researchable problem

Step 2. Identify the Research Problem. Given the general topic area, what specific problems are of interest? In many cases, the researcher already knows the problems. In others, a trip to the library to read background literature and examine previous studies is probably needed. A key concern is the importance of the problem to the field. Conducting research requires too much time and effort to be examining trivial questions that do not expand existing knowledge.

Step 3. Conduct a Literature Search. With the research topic and problem identified, it is now time to conduct a more intensive literature search. Of importance is determining what relevant studies have been performed; the designs, instruments, and procedures employed in those studies; and, most critically, the findings. Based on the review, direction will be provided for (a) how to extend or complement the existing literature base, (b) possible research orientations to use, and (c) specific research questions to address.

Step 4. State the Research Questions (or Hypotheses). This step is probably the most critical part of the planning process. Once stated, the research questions or hypotheses provide the basis for planning all other parts of the study: design, materials, and data analysis. In particular, this step will guide the researcher’s decision as to whether an experimental design or some other orientation is the best choice.

Step 5. Determine the Research Design. The next consideration is whether an experimental design is feasible. If not, the researcher will need to consider alternative approaches, recognizing that the original research question may not be answerable as a result.

Step 6. Determine Methods. Methods of the study include (a) subjects, (b) materials and data collection instruments, and (c) procedures. In determining these components, the researcher must continually use the research questions and/or hypotheses as reference points. A good place to start is with subjects or participants. What kind and how many participants does the research design require?

 

 

 

 

Historical education:

Why history?

 

History opens up a space to reflect on the past in meaningful ways and opens up the opportunity to reconstruct that past based on the information you encounter and the experiences that you have. Think about similarities and differences between the word "history” and the word “story.” Historians "find" their stories from the information they gather from the archives and fiction writers "invent" their stories—may they be historical, biographical, political stories, etc. This process of discovery is what attracts many to historical research. Think about period films or the documentaries we see on history channels.

What is historical research?

 

Historical inquiry in art education has formed the basis of any research undertaken in the field. On this path, we may discover forgotten moments and personalities, and clarify challenging ideas, thus, approaching history from multiple perspectives. Mary Erickson (1984) argued that historians and readers of history have not been "outsiders" to the study, but "insiders" in the history that interests them. The process of historical research may lead us to better knowledge of our past, and our quest for research leads us to understand, in Graeme Chalmers’s (1993) words, “how we came to be where we are” (p. 254). Sources of doing historical work can include but are not limited to:

 

·         Written documents

·         Visual images

·         Objects

·         Recorded and transcribed oral histories

 

History is a tool, a form of inquiry, whose impact extends beyond written documents, and physical objects, chronological location, or the assessment of a given event (Hamblen, 1985). Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) define historical research as “the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events” (p. 48). Put another way, historical research is also seen as an act of re- construction carried out in a spirit of critical inquiry designed to achieve a faithful representation of a previous age.

 

One of the principal differences between historical research and other forms of research is that historical research must deal with data that already exists. Sources of data, also known as historical evidence, are classified into two groups: Primary and Secondary sources (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000). Historians play a role of being a detective ever so often to find pieces of the story from archives and libraries.

Primary and Secondary Sources

 

Primary sources are items that are original to the problem under study. There are two categories:

 

·         remains or relics of a given period, and

·         items that have a direct physical relationship with the events being reconstructed—in other words, they were produced at the time of the event.

Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the even being studied and are made up of data that cannot be described as original.

 

The following video contains two examples of sources in historical research.

 

 

 

What do historical researchers do to establish facts?

 

Typically, when a historian engages with historical data, they perform something called external and internal criticism to establish facts. So what does this mean? We discuss this in the following video. Note that in the short timeframe that we have, we won’t be working on internal and external criticism of the primary sources that you will accumulate, as for the most part they will be authentic and legitimate forms of historical evidence, but it is still important to understand the process.

As you gather material for a historical study using primary and secondary sources,

 

the challenge that you will encounter will involve organization of the material.

 

Again you will now hear my voice ringing in your ears, "research is 99%

 

management" and "1% inspiration." My doctoral advisor drilled this into me. As a

 

historical researcher who chose to embark on the journey of charting the

 

undocumented history of the teaching of drawing in India in the field of art

 

education, management played a key role in my work as the study involved

sophisticated archives in England. How did I organize this material? Do what

collecting an enormous amount of data from the obscure archives in India and the

 

works for you as your best practice. For me, Excel spreadsheets helped me keep on

task as well as organized, where I made tables and matrices of all the primary and secondary sources I gathered for the study and included my margin notes. In this

weeks reading, my colleague and dear friend Mary Ann Stankiewicz outlines the best practices that she uses in her own scholarly work as a historian in the reading on "How can data be organized and analyzed." Her article should give you some

good tips and another perspective that will be useful with any kind of research

 

project that you might undertake.

 

Biography as a Method

 

Educational biography can be described as a representation of an individual life focusing on the experince of education. The educative style of the subject is shown in various learning and teaching conditions, and then interpreted in concurrence with educational theory (Stankiewicz, 1985, p. 205). Applying this model to art education requires interpreting historical facts according to available theories in art education. Thus, an art educational biography focuses on an individual’s learning and teaching experiences in art, both formal and informal. Biographical approaches rediscover forgotten individuals and keep the legacy of exceptional art educators alive. Bringing to print unknown histories of art education is done with caution and care, and efforts to do so call for the same meticulousness required of all historical research. However, the findings of what are often ambiguous facts about the past don’t automatically present us with rich and meaningful histories (Bolin, Blandy & Congdon, 2000, p. 6). To achieve this richness, Burns (1994) argues that historians play the role of emotional archeologists in their research. They not only interpret dry facts, but also bring to life the moving undercurrents of real human affections and feelings. Personal and biographical histories are not ordinary kinds of histories, but are rather critical and contemporary accounts of tales left untold. These are the stories some historians strive to tell.

Re-Viewing the Past as a Dynamic Process                                                        

 

In recent years, the field of history has undergone significant changes. Several transformations have taken place in historical methodology in response to influences within and outside the discipline. Historical writing, as viewed by traditional historians, has evolved from gathering and presenting facts about past events to the incorporation of a wide range of topics ranging from art to psychology. In the past, a historian’s primary task was to investigate information and document the actions of people in the past (Bolin, Blandy & Congdon, 2000). Traditional history has always offered a view from above. In other words, it has always focused on the deeds of individuals, statesmen, generals and sometimes- church leaders, giving the rest of humanity a small place in its narratives. On the other hand, new historians are concerned with history from below, that is, through the eyes of everyday individuals as they experience social change (Burke, 2001). Today, historians view their work as interpretive and fluid, as they take up the challenge to recognize and investigate relationships between the past and present. Hence, today’s histories reflect multiple perspectives (Bolin, Blandy & Congdon, 2000; Hamblen, 1985). Peter Burke identifies some of these recent developments in his text New Perspectives in Historical Writing (2001). These developments offer a contemporary view of history whereby Burke sees the need to understand what is important to be considered worthy of historical study and a need to move beyond the study of historical documents and questions about history to a position that can generate numerous responses.

 

Stories and objects passed between generations create circumstances for understanding "then" and "now" in ways that are missed if history is only examined through a discursive written form (Bolin, Blandy & Congdon, 2000). According to Burke (2001), historians concerned with a greater variety of human

activities than their predecessors must examine a greater variety of visual and verbal evidence. Consequently, visual and verbal data can provide prolific connections between the past and present. Nor does history offer a single answer to meaningful questions, but questions about history are capable of generating a multitude of responses (Burke, 2001). As the breadth of topics for historical analysis has increased, so has the scope of questions now being asked by historians. Consequently contemporary history can be viewed as complex and multifaceted with few simplistic answers available to satisfy the historian or the reader (Bolin, Blandy & Congdon, 2000).

Action research

What Is Action Research?

 

A succinct definition of action research appears in the workshop materials we use at the Institute for the Study of Inquiry in Education. That definition states that action research

is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions.

Practitioners who engage in action research inevitably find it to be an empowering experience. Action research has this positive effect for many reasons. Obviously, the most important is that action research is always relevant to the participants.

Relevance is guaranteed because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers, who are also the primary consumers of the findings.

The Action Research Process

Perhaps even more important is the fact that action research helps educators be more effective at what they care most about—their teaching and the development of their students. Seeing students grow is probably the greatest joy educators can experience. When teachers have convincing evidence that their work has made a real difference in their students' lives, the countless hours and endless efforts of teaching seem worthwhile.

 

 

 

33

Educational action research can be engaged in by a single teacher, by a group of colleagues who share an interest in a common problem, or by the entire faculty of a school. Whatever the scenario, action research always involves the same seven- step process. These seven steps, which become an endless cycle for the inquiring teacher, are the following:

1.      Selecting a focus

2.      Clarifying theories

3.      Identifying research questions

4.      Collecting data

5.      Analyzing data

6.      Reporting results

7.      Taking informed action Step 1—Selecting a Focus

The action research process begins with serious reflection directed toward

identifying a topic or topics worthy of a busy teacher's time. Considering the incredible demands on today's classroom teachers, no activity is worth doing unless it promises to make the central part of a teacher's work more successful and satisfying. Thus, selecting a focus, the first step in the process, is vitally important. Selecting a focus begins with the teacher researcher or the team of action researchers asking:

What element(s) of our practice or what aspect of student learning do we wish to investigate?

Step 2—Clarifying Theories

The second step involves identifying the values, beliefs, and theoretical perspectives the researchers hold relating to their focus. For example, if teachers are concerned about increasing responsible classroom behavior, it will be helpful for them to begin by clarifying which approach—using punishments and rewards, allowing students to experience the natural consequences of their behaviors, or some other strategy—they feel will work best in helping students acquire responsible classroom behavior habits.

Step 3—Identifying Research Questions

Once a focus area has been selected and the researcher's perspectives and beliefs about that focus have been clarified, the next step is to generate a set of personally meaningful research questions to guide the inquiry.

Step 4—Collecting Data

Professional educators always want their instructional decisions to be based on the best possible data. Action researchers can accomplish this by making sure that the data used to justify their actions are valid(meaning the information represents what the researchers say it does) and reliable (meaning the researchers are confident about the accuracy of their data). Lastly, before data are used to make teaching decisions, teachers must be confident that the lessons drawn from the data align with any unique characteristics of their classroom or school.

Step 5—Analyzing Data

Although data analysis often brings to mind the use of complex statistical calculations, this is rarely the case for the action researcher. A number of relatively user-friendly procedures can help a practitioner identify the trends and patterns in action research data. During this portion of the seven-step process, teacher researchers will methodically sort, sift, rank, and examine their data to answer two generic questions:

·         What is the story told by these data?

·         Why did the story play itself out this way?

 

Step 6—Reporting Results

It is often said that teaching is a lonely endeavor. It is doubly sad that so many teachers are left alone in their classrooms to reinvent the wheel on a daily basis. The loneliness of teaching is unfortunate not only because of its inefficiency, but also because when dealing with complex problems the wisdom of several minds is inevitably better than one.

Step 7—Taking Informed Action

Taking informed action, or “action planning,” the last step in the action research

process, is very familiar to most teachers. When teachers write lesson plans or develop academic programs, they are engaged in the action planning process.

 

Three Purposes for Action Research

As stated earlier, action research can be engaged in by an individual teacher, a collaborative group of colleagues sharing a common concern, or an entire school faculty. These three different approaches to organizing for research serve three compatible, yet distinct, purposes:

·         Building the reflective practitioner

·         Making progress on schoolwide priorities

·         Building professional cultures

 

Unit 4

Techniques of reviewing literature

"The Literature" refers to the collection of scholarly writings on a topic. This includes peer-reviewed articles, books, dissertations and conference papers.

When reviewing the literature, be sure to include major works as well as studies that respond to major works. You will want to focus on primary sources, though secondary sources can be valuable as well.

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.

Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature reviewusually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories.

A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

·         Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations, ·         Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates, ·         Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or ·         Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

 

 

·       Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.

·       Describe   the   relationship   of   each   work   to   the   others   under consideration.

·       Identify new ways to interpret prior research.

·       Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

·       Resolve    conflicts    amongst    seemingly    contradictory   previous studies.

·       Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.

·       Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.

·       Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

·       It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the

perceptions,   conclusions,   opinion,  and   interpretations   that   are shared informally that become part of the lore of field.

·       In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Types of Literature Reviews

·         Argumentative

Review

This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

 

 

·       Integrative                                                                                  Review

Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research  problems.  A well-done

integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

·         Historical

Review

Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of- the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

 

 

·       Methodological                                                                          Review

A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

·       Systematic                                                                                   Review

This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

·         Theoretical

Review

The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

 

 

Primary and secondary sources:

 

 

Primary sources:

The term primary source is used broadly to embody all sources that are original. Primary sources provide firsthand information that is closest to the object of study.

Original reports of research found in academic journals detailing the methodology used in the research, in-depth descriptions, and discussions of the findings are considered primary sources of information.

Primary resources contain first-hand information, meaning that you are reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event that s/he participated in. Examples of primary resources include scholarly research articles, books, and diaries. Primary sources such as research articles often do not explain terminology and theoretical principles in detail. Thus, readers of primary scholarly research should have foundational knowledge of the subject area. Use primary resources to obtain a first-hand account to an actual event and identify original research done in a field. For many of your papers, use of primary resources will be a requirement.

Other common examples of primary sources include speeches, letters, diaries, autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts, photographs, and drawings.

Secondary sources:

A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or secondhand data or information.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources. Secondary sources describe, summarize, or discuss information or details originally presented in another source; meaning the author, in most cases, did not

participate in the event. This type of source is written for a broad audience and will include definitions of discipline specific terms, history relating to the topic, significant theories and principles, and summaries of major studies/events as related to the topic. Use secondary sources to obtain an overview of a topic and/or identify primary resources. Refrain from including such resources in an annotated bibliography for doctoral level work unless there is a good reason.

Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are considered secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of results with few details on the methodology. Other examples of secondary sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work.

Examples of secondary sources:

·    Bibliographies

·    Biographical works

·    Reference books, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, and atlases

·    Articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers after the event

·    Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie reviews, book reviews)

·    History books and other popular or scholarly books

·    Works of criticism and interpretation

·    Commentaries and treatises

·    Textbooks

·    Indexes and abstracts

 

 

by ,Habib Hussain ghoury

     M.phil education,MA (TEFL)

 

03003502244

habibhussainghoury@gmail,com

habibhussainghoury.blogspot.com

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit 5

Methodology

The methods section describes actions to be taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

RESEARCH DESIGN

It is the blueprint for conducting the study that maximises control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings. Designing a study helps the researcher to plan and implement the study in a way that will help the researcher to obtain intended results, thus increasing the chances of obtaining information that could be associated with the real situation.

RESEARCH METHOD

A quantitative, descriptive approach was adopted to investigate reasons why women who requested TOP services failed to use contraceptives effectively.

Quantitative

This is a quantitative study since it is concerned with the numbers and frequencies with which contraceptive challenges were experienced by women who requested TOP services in terms of the 85 CTOP Act (no 92 of 1996) in the Gert Sibande District of the Mpumalannga Province of the RSA, during August and September 2003.

Description:

This study was descriptive because it complied with the characteristics of descriptive research as stipulated by Brink and Wood (1998: 283).

·   Descriptive designs are used for the development of a database for any science. In this study a database about women’s reasons for failing to use contraceptives and who requested TOP services in Gert Sibande District has been initiated.

·   Demographic information obtained that could aid in describing the population of women who undergo TOP services.

·   Descriptive studies are used when the characteristics of a population are either unknown or partially known. In this study the characteristics of women who requested TOPservices in the Gert Sibande District would be correlated with those of women who underwent TOPs and participated in other studies.

POPULATION

Polit and Hungler (1999:37) refer to the population as an aggregate or totality of all the objects, subjects or members that conform to a set of specifications. In this study the population was South African women of all races, age groups, educational status, socio-economic status and residential areas, who requested TOP services in the Gert Sibande District during August and September 2003.

The eligibility criteria:

These criteria specify the characteristics that people in the population must possess in order to be included in the study (Polit & Hungler 1999:278). The eligibility criteria in this study were that the participants had to 86 · be South African citizens have requested TOPs under the CTOP Act (no 92 of 1996) · obtain TOP services at the Bethal Hospital in the Gert Sibande District

THE SAMPLING PROCEDURE

The process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population is known as sampling (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber 1998:250; Polit & Hungler 1999:95). A number of women who requested TOPs under the CTOP Act (no 92 of 1996) in Gert Sibande District was selected. Time and money was saved by selecting a sample to be studied rather than attempting to study the entire population of women who requested TOP services. Obtaining data from the population of women as well as analysing and interpreting vast amounts of data would have been impossible to accomplish within the time constraints and with the limited financial resources which were available for conducting this research.

Non-probability sampling:

A non-probability sampling method was adopted which, according to LoBiondo- Wood and Haber (1998:249), is less vigorous and tends to produce less accurate and less representative samples than probability or random samples. Non- probability sampling implies that not every element of the population has an opportunity for being included in the sample, such as convenience (accidental), quota, purposive and network sampling procedures (Burns & Grove 2001:804).

The non-probability sampling procedure might have limited the generalisability of the findings.

Sample:

A sample is a subset of a population selected to participate in the study, it is a fraction of the whole, selected to participate in the research project (Brink 1996:133; Polit & Hungler 1999:227). In this survey, a subset of 55 women was selected out of the entire population of women who requested TOPservices in the Gert Sibande District.

Convenience sample:

A convenience sample comprising 55 women who requested TOP services in the Gert Sibande District during August and September 2003 was selected. De Vos (1998:199), as well as LoBiondo-Wood and Haber (1998:253) describe a convenience sample as the use of readily accessible persons in a study. Any case, which happens to cross the researcher’s path, and meets the inclusive criteria set for the study, gets included in a convenience sample. The researcher finds it easy to obtain participants, but the risk of bias is greater than in a random sample, because each member of the population does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample. Obtained results might not be generalisable to the entire population.

Sample size:

A general rule of the thumb is to always use the largest sample possible. The larger the sample the more representative it is going to be, smaller samples produce less accurate results because they are likely to be less representative of the population (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber 1998:263-264). In this study a convenience

sample of 55 respondents has been obtained, from women who requested TOP services at Bethal Hospital in the Gert Sibande District during August and September 2003. Women who requested TOP services and who were in the hospital at the times when the researcher conducted interviews and who were willing to be interviewed were included in the sample. According to the Mpumalanga Department of Health (1997-2002), Bethal Hospital is the main hospital, which renders TOP services in Gert Sibande District.

DATA COLLECTION:

Polit and Hungler (1999:267) define data as information obtained in a course of a study. In this study data was collected by using structured interview schedules. A structured interview schedule was used in order to capture data relevant to the study’s objectives and research questions. The purpose of the 89 study was to identify and describe contraceptive challenges experienced by women who requested TOPs in the Gert Sibande District during August and September 2003.

The data collection instrument:

The literature reviewed indicated that challenges exist even before contraceptive use can be initiated, and during the use of contraceptives. The structured interview tool was formulated to capture contraceptive challenges facing women before contraceptive use can be initiated, and those that are experienced during the use of contraceptives.

The structured interview schedule (included as annexure C of this dissertation) comprised the following sections: ·

·        Section 1. Questions related to demographic information of the women who requested TOPs. ·

·        Section 2. Questions related to contraceptive challenges existing before contraceptive use can be initiated. ·

·     Section 3. Questions related to contraceptive challenges experienced during the use of contraceptives.

·     Section 4. Questions related to the TOP procedure itself.

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

·       Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance.

 

·       Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your interpretations of the findings.

 

·       In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you chose a particular procedure or technique.

 

·       The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.

 

·       The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.

 

·       The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.

 

·       In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

1.  The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.

2.  The interpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way. Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

 

 

 

II. Content The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you will use to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

 

·       Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,

·       Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,

·       The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and

·       The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

 

·       Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem. Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?

·       Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design. Your  methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.

·       Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use, such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.

·       Explain how you intend to analyze your results. Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.

·       Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers. Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.

·       Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure. For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being

used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.

·       Describe potential limitations. Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

·       III. Problems to Avoid

·         Irrelevant

Detail

The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper                   except                   the                                 conclusion.

·

Unnecessary

Explanation

of

Basic

Procedures

Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method, not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall    process                        of                                   discovery.

Problem

Blindness

 

 

It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or

generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival  materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often,

documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that     arose.

 

Literature                                                                                       Review

Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

·         It’s            more            than           Sources           of           Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Unit 6

Data analysis

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming,

and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, while being used in different business, science, and social science domains.

Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes,

while business intelligence covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information. In statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA),

and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying

existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies

statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All of the above are varieties of data analysis.

The process of data analysis

Analysis refers to breaking a whole into its separate components for individual examination. Data analysis is a processfor obtaining raw data and converting it into information useful for decision-making by users. Data is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses or disprove theories.

Statistician John Tukey defined data analysis in 1961 as: "Procedures for analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to analyzing data."

There are several phases that can be distinguished, described below. The phases are iterative, in that feedback from later phases may result in additional work in earlier phases.

Data requirements

The data is necessary as inputs to the analysis, which is specified based upon the requirements of those directing the analysis or customers (who will use the finished product of the analysis). The general type of entity upon which the data will be collected is referred to as an experimental unit (e.g., a person or population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., age and income) may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical (i.e., a text label for numbers).

Data collection

Data is collected from a variety of sources. The requirements may be communicated by analysts to custodians of the data, such as information technology personnel within an organization. The data may also be collected from sensors in the environment, such as traffic cameras, satellites, recording devices, etc. It may also be obtained through interviews, downloads from online sources, or reading documentation.

Data processing

Data initially obtained must be processed or organised for analysis. For instance, these may involve placing data into rows and columns in a table format

(i.e., structured data) for further analysis, such as within a spreadsheet or statistical software.

Data cleaning

Once processed and organised, the data may be incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain errors. The need for data cleaning will arise from problems in the way that data is entered and stored. Data cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting these errors. Common tasks include record matching, identifying inaccuracy of data, overall quality of existing data,deduplication, and column segmentation.Such data problems can also be identified through a variety of analytical techniques.

For example, with financial information, the totals for particular variables may be compared against separately published numbers believed to be reliable.Unusual amounts above or below pre-determined thresholds may also be reviewed. There are several types of data cleaning that depend on the type of data such as phone numbers, email addresses, employers etc. Quantitative data methods for outlier detection can be used to get rid of likely incorrectly entered data. Textual data spell checkers can be used to lessen the amount of mistyped words, but it is harder to tell if the words themselves are correct.

Exploratory data analysis

Once the data is cleaned, it can be analyzed. Analysts may apply a variety of techniques referred to as exploratory data analysis to begin understanding the messages contained in the data. The process of exploration may result in additional data cleaning or additional requests for data, so these activities may be iterative in nature. Descriptive statistics, such as the average or median, may be generated to help understand the data. Data visualization may also be used to examine the data in graphical format, to obtain additional insight regarding the messages within the data.

Modeling and algorithms

Mathematical formulas or models called algorithms may be applied to the data to identify relationships among the variables, such as correlation or causation. In general terms, models may be developed to evaluate a particular variable in the

data based on other variable(s) in the data, with some residual error depending on model accuracy (i.e., Data = Model + Error).

Inferential statistics includes techniques to measure relationships between particular variables. For example, regression analysis may be used to model whether a change in advertising (independent variable X) explains the variation in sales (dependent variable Y). In mathematical terms, Y (sales) is a function of X (advertising). It may be described as Y = aX + b + error, where the model is designed such that a and b minimize the error when the model predicts Y for a given range of values of X. Analysts may attempt to build models that are descriptive of the data to simplify analysis and communicate results.

Data product

A data product is a computer application that takes data inputs and generates outputs, feeding them back into the environment. It may be based on a model or algorithm. An example is an application that analyzes data about customer purchasing history and recommends other purchases the customer might enjoy.

Communication:

Once the data is analyzed, it may be reported in many formats to the users of the analysis to support their requirements. The users may have feedback, which results in additional analysis. As such, much of the analytical cycle is iterative.

When determining how to communicate the results, the analyst may consider data visualization techniques to help clearly and efficiently communicate the message to the audience. Data visualization uses information displays (such as tables and charts) to help communicate key messages contained in the data. Tables are helpful to a user who might lookup specific numbers, while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts) may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data.

 

 

 

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

 

When analysing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece of coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your analysis of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of people, you will use both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse your results and

draw conclusions. So what are descriptive and inferential statistics? And what are their differences?

Descriptive Statistics

 

Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data.

 

Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw data it would be hard to visulize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it. Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall performance of those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks. Descriptive statistics allow us to do this. How to properly describe data through statistics and graphs is an important topic and discussed in other Laerd Statistics guides. Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:

 

o      Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central position of a frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency distribution is simply the distribution and pattern of marks scored by the 100 students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe this central position using a number of statistics, including the mode, median, and mean. You can read about measures of central tendency here.

 

 

 

o      Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of

our 100 students may be 65 out of 100. However, not all students will have scored 65 marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower and others higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out these scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to us, including the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance

and standard deviation.

 

When we use descriptive statistics it is useful to summarize our group of data using a combination of tabulated description (i.e., tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs and charts) and statistical commentary (i.e., a discussion of the results).

Inferential Statistics

 

We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate group of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this group of 100 students. Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you are interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in the exam marks of 100 students, the 100 students would represent your population. Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like the mean or standard deviation, are

called parameters as they represent the whole population (i.e., everybody you are interested in).

 

Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in investigating, but only a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be interested in the exam marks of all students in the UK.

 

It is not feasible to measure all exam marks of all students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller sample of students (e.g., 100 students), which are used to represent the larger population of all UK students. Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called parameters,

but statistics.

Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore, important that the sample accurately represents the population. The process of achieving this is called sampling (sampling strategies are discussed in detail here on our sister site). Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent the population.

 

The methods of inferential statistics are

 

(1) the estimation of parameter(s) and (2) testing of statistical hypotheses.

 

 

 

Unit 7

REPORT WRITING: TYPES, FORMATS, STRUCTURE and RELEVANCE

 

 

 

WHAT IS A REPORT?

It is any informational work made with an intention to relay information or recounting certain events in a presentable manner. ØReports are often conveyed in writing, speech, television, or film. ØReport is an administrative necessity. ØMost official form of information or work are completed via report. ØReport is always written in a sequential manner in order of occurrence

TYPES OF REPORT: FORMAL AND INFORMAL INFORMAL:

•   The informal report functions to inform, analyze, and recommend. • It usually takes the form of a memo, letter or a very short international document like a

monthly financial report, monthly activities report, research and development report, etc.

•  This report differs from the formal report in length and formality.

•   It is written according to organization style and rules, but usually does not include the preliminary (front) and supplemental (back) material.

•   The informal report is usually more controversial in tone and typically deals with everyday problems and issues addressed to a narrow readership inside the organization.

TYPES OF INFORMAL REPORT:

There are many embodiments of the informal report:

i.                    Progress report

ii.                 Sales activity report

iii.               Personnel evaluation

iv.               Financial report

v.                  Feasibility report

vi.                  Literature review

vii.               Credit report

What are formal reports?

The formal report is the collection and interpretation of data and information

. • The formal report is complex and used at an official level.

•  It is often a written account of a major project.

•  Examples of subject matter include new technologies, the advisability of launching a new project line, results of a study or experiment, an annual report, or a year old review of developments in the field.

TYPES OF FORMAL REPORT:

They can be categorized as:

1.      ØInformational reports

2.      ØAnalytical reports

3.      ØRecommendation reports INFORMATIONAL REPORTS

•   Informational reports present results so readers can understand a particular problem or situation.

Example: Manager of a city’s website might prepare an informational report for the city council; the report would provide statistics on the number of people who pay their city water and sewage bills online etc.

•  Informational reports might:

A.         Present information on the status of current research or of a project.

B.         Present an update of the operation in your division.

C.         Explain how your organization or division does something.

D.         Present the results of a questionnaire or research.

ANALYTICAL REPORTS

•   This type goes a step beyond presenting results. Analytical reports present results, analyze those results, and draw conclusions based on those results.

•  These reports attempt to describe why or how something happened and then to explain what it means.

•  Like informational reports, analytical reports can be formal or informal.

•  Explain what cause a problem or situation – Present the results of a traffic study showing accidents at an intersection – the report explains what it means.

•  Explain the potential results of a particular course of action.

•  Suggest which option, action, or procedure is best.

RECOMMENDATION REPORTS

•  This type advocate a particular course of action.

This usually present the results and conclusions that support the recommendations.

•   This type is identical to analytical report.

•   For example, your analytical report suggests using treatment X is more efficient than treatments Y and Z. However, that does not mean that you will use treatment X as cost and other considerations might recommend treatment Y.

•  What should we do about a problem?

•  Should we or can we do something?

•   Should we change the method or technology we use to do something?

THE PLAN FOR PREPARING A FORMAL REPORT:

•   Identify the reader

•   Determine your purpose

•  Formulate specific questions

•  Conduct research to answer the questions

•   Draw valid conclusions (for analytical or recommendation reports)

•   Decide on recommendations (for recommendations)

•   Write the report

Most widely used Information written in a logical manner or sequence All the case studies or formal narration are written in this format , it follows a sequential manner of description All the steps are to be followed accordingly.

NARRATIVE REPORT:

Summary of reports about specialized law enforcement and police problems May be either narrative, chronological, or both It may not follow a single pattern due to the different case types and description.

SPECIALIZED REPORT:

The report defines complete description of the accident It describes the location and the loss occurred. It is important for documentation It is required to start any investigation.

ACCIDENT REPORT:

The purpose is to describe the way things are, this type is mainly used in letter, non fiction book, information leaflet, catalouge etc. The opening contains a general classification, a description of chosen subject then the paragraphs about different aspects of the subject and lastly conclusion.

FORMAT OF A REPORT :

Although, there is no set report writing format, however, there are general sections that should be included. ¢ Unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which are usually numbered. ¢ There are numerous possible formats available for writing a report, and it mostly depends on the context of topic.

Components of a report:

Below given are the components of a report in which they would occur:

1.     Title page:

It should include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being submitted, date of submission, your course/department. The logo of the organisation should also be printed.

 

 

2.     Acknowledgements:

A list of people and organisations who have helped you in the compilation of report and other related work.

3.                        Contents page:

A clear, well-formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the report. Page numbers should be marked correctly.

3.      Abstract:

A summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations should be written to give a general overview of report.

4.      Introduction:

The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the problem and show the reader why the report is being made.

5.      Body:

This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having a subtitle. The various sections include Review of Literature, Materials and Methods and Results. A discussion section can also be included at the end of the body to go over by findings and their significance.

6.      Conclusion:

A conclusion should draw out the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. The significance and relevance of study is discussed in this section.

7.      References:

This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference within your text.

RELEVANCE OF REPORT WRITING

·        REPORT AS A MEANS OF INTERNAL COMMUNICATION :

·        A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. ¢It provides feedback to employees. ¢It is prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with the matter / problem.

·          REPORT FACILITATES DECISION MAKING AND PLANNING:

·        Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. ¢It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.

·        REPORT DISCLOSES UNKNOWN INFORMATION :

·        Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. ¢ The committee members collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all concerned parties. ¢ Even new business opportunities are visible through unknown information available in the reports.

·        REPORT GIVES INFORMATION TO EMPLOYEES :

·        Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. ¢ They are widely used by the departments for guidance. ¢ Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-improvement.

 

 

 

 

ANOTHER REPORT FORMAT

 

Each report should have the following sections at the left margin (except for the abstract*, which will be centered on the page):

 

Front Page:

 

·         Title page

·         Abstract

·         Table of contents

 

Body:

 

·         Introduction

·         Background

·         Text (main body) with subsections*:

·         Conclusions

·         Recommendations

·         Acknowledgments

·         References

 

Back Matter:

 

·         Appendices

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